Water harvesting (WH) is a critical strategy for addressing water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions, where communities rely on limited rainfall to sustain domestic supply, livestock, and agricultural production. This study evaluates the design, construction, and operational performance of small water-harvesting dams constructed in Sudan between 2010 and 2019. A basin-based analytical framework was applied to describe hydrological conditions and manage uncertainties inherent in data-scarce environments. The methodology integrates regional and empirical flood-estimation techniques with assessment of key design parameters, evaluation of construction practices, and qualitative risk analysis. Results indicate that, despite their relatively small size, these dams face engineering challenges comparable to larger dams, particularly in terms of hydrological uncertainty, seepage control, reservoir tightness, and limited site-investigation data. The absence of continuous hydrometric records complicates flood-frequency analysis and spillway design, increasing uncertainty and operational risk. The study underscores the importance of incorporating risk-informed design approaches and strengthening hydrological and geotechnical investigations to enhance safety, functionality, and long-term performance of small dams in Sudan. Additionally, it highlights the need for systematic monitoring and adaptive management strategies to mitigate extreme events, optimize water utilization, and support sustainable rural development in dryland regions increasingly affected by climate variability and growing water demand.
This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Small Dams, Water Harvesting, Sudan, Hydrological Uncertainty, Seepage, Dam Safety
1. Introduction
Sudan is predominantly characterized by extensive arid and semi-arid regions, where rainfall is highly variable, sporadic, and often insufficient to sustain domestic water supply, agricultural production, and livestock management
[1]
K. Prasad, G. P. Singh, and A. K. Jha, Nanofabrication. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2024.
S. E. Waickowski et al., “Quantifying the Water Quality and Hydrologic Benefits of Two Bioswales Receiving Highway Runoff in North Carolina,” J. Sustain. Water Built Environ., vol. 11, no. 3, Aug. 2025,
. These climatic constraints have historically resulted in chronic water scarcity, which imposes significant limitations on socio-economic development, food security, and rural livelihoods
[3]
H. Kinkade-Levario, “Rainwater Harvesting, Low Impact Development Strategies, and Meeting the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Stormwater Discharge Standards,” in World Environmental and Water Resource Congress 2006, Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, May 2006, pp. 1–8.
Aschalew Fekadu, “Potential Water Harvesting Site Identification for Micro-dam Using SCS-GIS Approach: Case of Genfel River Catchment, Eastern Zone of Tigray, Ethiopia,” Journal of Environment and Earth Science, vol. 10, no. 9, pp. 9–23, 2020,
. In response, water harvesting (wh) strategies have been increasingly adopted as cost-effective solutions to capture, store, and regulate seasonal surface runoff. Among these strategies, small dams are recognized as essential infrastructure for improving water availability, providing reliable storage for irrigation, supporting livestock needs, and enhancing overall resilience to climatic variability in rural communities
[5]
M. K. Afzal, “Economic evaluation of small dams in rain-fed region of Pothwar Plateau, Pakistan,” Cogent Food Agric., vol. 7, no. 1, Jan. 2021,
H. Amjad, M. Hamza, Z. Khan, A. Ur Rehman, Z. Sultan, and B. Zahid, “Evaluating the Impact of Mini Dams on Agricultural Production and Socio-economic Conditions: A Case Study of Latamber’s Dam District Karak (Pakistan),” Journal of Asian Development Studies, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 1047–1058, Sep. 2024,
W. Abdul, U. Abid, K. K. Muhammad, A. &, and C. Ali, “Global Journal of Management and Business Research Economics and Commerce Socio Economic Impact of Small Dams on Local Vicinity: A Case Study of Aza Khel Dam Peshawar Socio Economic Impact of Small Dams on Local Vicinity: A Case Study of Aza Khel Dam Peshawar,” 2013. Accessed: Mar. 30, 2026. Available:
Between 2010 and 2019, a considerable number of small dams were constructed across Sudan under national and regional development initiatives aimed at strengthening water security and promoting sustainable resource management
[3]
H. Kinkade-Levario, “Rainwater Harvesting, Low Impact Development Strategies, and Meeting the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Stormwater Discharge Standards,” in World Environmental and Water Resource Congress 2006, Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, May 2006, pp. 1–8.
. Despite their relatively modest dimensions compared to large-scale reservoirs, these structures serve as critical components of local hydrological systems. Their planning, design, and operation, however, are often constrained by limited hydrological and geotechnical information, inadequate site investigations, and budgetary limitations
[8]
D. W, H. C, H. J, C. A, and M. T, “Design of small dams (third edition). A water resources technical publication. Final report,” Dec. 1987, Accessed: Mar. 30, 2026. Available:
G. Agoramoorthy, S. Chaudhary, P. Chinnasamy, and M. J. Hsu, “Harvesting river water through small dams promote positive environmental impact,” Environ. Monit. Assess., vol. 188, no. 11, p. 645, Nov. 2016,
. These constraints introduce substantial uncertainty in critical design considerations, including flood estimation, spillway sizing, seepage control, and reservoir efficiency, which may compromise dam safety and performance
[10]
A. Muhammad and W. In, “Impact Evaluation of Water Resources Development in the Commands Areas of Small Dams,”
While prior studies have primarily focused on the socio-economic and agricultural benefits of small dams
[4]
Aschalew Fekadu, “Potential Water Harvesting Site Identification for Micro-dam Using SCS-GIS Approach: Case of Genfel River Catchment, Eastern Zone of Tigray, Ethiopia,” Journal of Environment and Earth Science, vol. 10, no. 9, pp. 9–23, 2020,
W. Abdul, U. Abid, K. K. Muhammad, A. &, and C. Ali, “Global Journal of Management and Business Research Economics and Commerce Socio Economic Impact of Small Dams on Local Vicinity: A Case Study of Aza Khel Dam Peshawar Socio Economic Impact of Small Dams on Local Vicinity: A Case Study of Aza Khel Dam Peshawar,” 2013. Accessed: Mar. 30, 2026. Available:
, systematic assessments of the engineering and hydrological challenges associated with data-scarce environments remain limited. This study addresses this gap by evaluating the design, construction, and operational performance of small dams in Sudan, with particular emphasis on hydrological uncertainty, seepage management, and risk-informed decision-making.
2. Research Problem and Objectives
Research Problem
Although small dams are commonly perceived as structurally simpler and less risky than large dams due to their lower height and reduced hydrostatic pressures
[9]
G. Agoramoorthy, S. Chaudhary, P. Chinnasamy, and M. J. Hsu, “Harvesting river water through small dams promote positive environmental impact,” Environ. Monit. Assess., vol. 188, no. 11, p. 645, Nov. 2016,
, they remain subject to significant hydrological and geotechnical uncertainties
[8]
D. W, H. C, H. J, C. A, and M. T, “Design of small dams (third edition). A water resources technical publication. Final report,” Dec. 1987, Accessed: Mar. 30, 2026. Available:
. In Sudan, the lack of streamflow gauging stations and long-term hydrometric records complicates flood estimation and risk assessment. Consequently, designers must rely on regional empirical methods and short rainfall records, increasing uncertainty in spillway design, seepage control, and reservoir performance
[1]
K. Prasad, G. P. Singh, and A. K. Jha, Nanofabrication. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2024.
Sudan exhibits a wide range of climatic conditions, extending from hyper-arid desert regions in the north to semi-humid zones in the south
[2]
S. E. Waickowski et al., “Quantifying the Water Quality and Hydrologic Benefits of Two Bioswales Receiving Highway Runoff in North Carolina,” J. Sustain. Water Built Environ., vol. 11, no. 3, Aug. 2025,
. The majority of small dams constructed between 2010 and 2019 are situated within dry and semi-dry catchments, where surface water availability is highly limited and strongly seasonal
[1]
K. Prasad, G. P. Singh, and A. K. Jha, Nanofabrication. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2024.
Catchment characteristics in these regions commonly include shallow soil profiles, exposed or fractured bedrock, and highly permeable geological formations
[11]
S. Türkmen, H. Tağa, and E. Özgüler, “Effect of Construction Material on Dam Type Selection of the Büyük Karaçay Dam (Hatay, Turkey),” Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 1137–1149, Aug. 2013,
Barry. Benator and Albert. Thumann, Project management and leadership skills for engineering and construction projects. Fairmont Press; M. Dekker, 2003.
[11, 12]
. Such geomorphological and geological conditions exert a significant influence on hydrological responses, including runoff generation, seepage dynamics, sediment transport, and reservoir storage efficiency
[10]
A. Muhammad and W. In, “Impact Evaluation of Water Resources Development in the Commands Areas of Small Dams,”
Catchment characteristics were analysed using available topographic, rainfall, and geological information. Runoff and flood discharges were estimated using regional flood equations and empirical methods commonly applied in data-scarce regions
[1]
K. Prasad, G. P. Singh, and A. K. Jha, Nanofabrication. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2024.
S. E. Waickowski et al., “Quantifying the Water Quality and Hydrologic Benefits of Two Bioswales Receiving Highway Runoff in North Carolina,” J. Sustain. Water Built Environ., vol. 11, no. 3, Aug. 2025,
. The uncertainty associated with the absence of continuous streamflow records was qualitatively assessed.
4.2. Quantitative Design Assessment
Key design parameters, including reservoir capacity, spillway discharge capacity, and seepage control measures, were reviewed based on available design documents and reports
[5]
M. K. Afzal, “Economic evaluation of small dams in rain-fed region of Pothwar Plateau, Pakistan,” Cogent Food Agric., vol. 7, no. 1, Jan. 2021,
Mathematical relationships and comparative indicators were used to evaluate design adequacy and conservatism.
4.3. Construction Process Assessment
Construction practices, material selection, and quality control procedures were reviewed to identify potential deficiencies affecting dam performance
[12]
Barry. Benator and Albert. Thumann, Project management and leadership skills for engineering and construction projects. Fairmont Press; M. Dekker, 2003.
[12]
.
4.4. Comparative Risk Analysis
The risks associated with small dams were compared with those of large dams, focusing on hydrological uncertainty, failure modes, operational performance, and socio-economic consequences
[10]
A. Muhammad and W. In, “Impact Evaluation of Water Resources Development in the Commands Areas of Small Dams,”
The analysis confirms that the lack of hydrometric monitoring stations is a major constraint in the design of small dams in Sudan. Designers frequently rely on short rainfall records, regional equations, and indirect estimation techniques, resulting in significant uncertainty in flood frequency analysis and spillway design.
5.2. Structural and Geotechnical Considerations
Although small dams are subjected to lower hydrostatic pressures than large dams, seepage remains a critical issue. Limited budgets often restrict detailed geological and geotechnical investigations, increasing the likelihood of seepage losses and reduced reservoir efficiency. In several cases, insufficient foundation treatment and cutoff measures were identified as key contributors to long-term water loss.
5.3. Risk Perspective
The findings indicate that small dams can pose risks comparable to those of larger dams, albeit with different consequences
[9]
G. Agoramoorthy, S. Chaudhary, P. Chinnasamy, and M. J. Hsu, “Harvesting river water through small dams promote positive environmental impact,” Environ. Monit. Assess., vol. 188, no. 11, p. 645, Nov. 2016,
. While the probability of catastrophic failure is generally lower, chronic risks such as seepage losses, rapid sedimentation, and underperformance are more prevalent.
6. Conclusions
The study of small dams constructed in Sudan between 2010 and 2019 reveals several critical insights regarding their hydrological and geotechnical performance:
(1) design complexity: small dams, despite their modest size, face engineering challenges comparable to large dams.
(2) hydrological data limitations: the absence of continuous and reliable hydrometric records significantly affects flood estimation and spillway design.
(3) seepage and reservoir integrity: effective seepage control is essential for maintaining long-term water retention and structural performance.
(4) risk-informed design necessity: incorporating risk-based approaches is crucial.
(5) operational sustainability: careful planning and adaptive management are required.
7. Recommendations
Based on the study’s findings, the following recommendations are proposed to improve the planning, design, and operational performance of small dams in Sudan:
Establish and maintain basic hydrometric monitoring stations within small dam catchments to support accurate flood estimation and operational decision-making.
Adopt simplified, cost-effective design criteria that explicitly account for hydrological uncertainty, ensuring safety without imposing prohibitive costs.
Strengthen geological and geotechnical investigations, particularly in areas susceptible to seepage, to enhance reservoir tightness and reduce long-term water loss.
Develop national guidelines and standardized protocols for small dam planning, design, and construction to ensure consistency, reliability, and adherence to best practices.
Integrate risk assessment techniques at early stages of project planning and design to identify potential failure modes, optimize mitigation measures, and enhance resilience to extreme events.
Abbreviations
WHH
Water Harvesting
SD
Small Dams
Author Contributions
Hummam Mohammed Yousif: Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing
Mona Adam Gumma Rabih: Supervision
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
References
[1]
K. Prasad, G. P. Singh, and A. K. Jha, Nanofabrication. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2024.
S. E. Waickowski et al., “Quantifying the Water Quality and Hydrologic Benefits of Two Bioswales Receiving Highway Runoff in North Carolina,” J. Sustain. Water Built Environ., vol. 11, no. 3, Aug. 2025,
H. Kinkade-Levario, “Rainwater Harvesting, Low Impact Development Strategies, and Meeting the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Stormwater Discharge Standards,” in World Environmental and Water Resource Congress 2006, Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, May 2006, pp. 1–8.
Aschalew Fekadu, “Potential Water Harvesting Site Identification for Micro-dam Using SCS-GIS Approach: Case of Genfel River Catchment, Eastern Zone of Tigray, Ethiopia,” Journal of Environment and Earth Science, vol. 10, no. 9, pp. 9–23, 2020,
H. Amjad, M. Hamza, Z. Khan, A. Ur Rehman, Z. Sultan, and B. Zahid, “Evaluating the Impact of Mini Dams on Agricultural Production and Socio-economic Conditions: A Case Study of Latamber’s Dam District Karak (Pakistan),” Journal of Asian Development Studies, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 1047–1058, Sep. 2024,
W. Abdul, U. Abid, K. K. Muhammad, A. &, and C. Ali, “Global Journal of Management and Business Research Economics and Commerce Socio Economic Impact of Small Dams on Local Vicinity: A Case Study of Aza Khel Dam Peshawar Socio Economic Impact of Small Dams on Local Vicinity: A Case Study of Aza Khel Dam Peshawar,” 2013. Accessed: Mar. 30, 2026. Available:
D. W, H. C, H. J, C. A, and M. T, “Design of small dams (third edition). A water resources technical publication. Final report,” Dec. 1987, Accessed: Mar. 30, 2026. Available:
G. Agoramoorthy, S. Chaudhary, P. Chinnasamy, and M. J. Hsu, “Harvesting river water through small dams promote positive environmental impact,” Environ. Monit. Assess., vol. 188, no. 11, p. 645, Nov. 2016,
S. Türkmen, H. Tağa, and E. Özgüler, “Effect of Construction Material on Dam Type Selection of the Büyük Karaçay Dam (Hatay, Turkey),” Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 1137–1149, Aug. 2013,
Barry. Benator and Albert. Thumann, Project management and leadership skills for engineering and construction projects. Fairmont Press; M. Dekker, 2003.
Yousif, H. M., Rabih, M. A. G. (2026). Design Challenges and Water Harvesting Performance of Small Dams in Sudan (2010–2019). American Journal of Construction and Building Materials, 10(1), 1-4. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajcbm.20261001.11
Yousif, H. M.; Rabih, M. A. G. Design Challenges and Water Harvesting Performance of Small Dams in Sudan (2010–2019). Am. J. Constr. Build. Mater.2026, 10(1), 1-4. doi: 10.11648/j.ajcbm.20261001.11
Yousif HM, Rabih MAG. Design Challenges and Water Harvesting Performance of Small Dams in Sudan (2010–2019). Am J Constr Build Mater. 2026;10(1):1-4. doi: 10.11648/j.ajcbm.20261001.11
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author = {Hummam Mohammed Yousif and Mona Adam Gumma Rabih},
title = {Design Challenges and Water Harvesting Performance of Small Dams in Sudan (2010–2019)},
journal = {American Journal of Construction and Building Materials},
volume = {10},
number = {1},
pages = {1-4},
doi = {10.11648/j.ajcbm.20261001.11},
url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajcbm.20261001.11},
eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajcbm.20261001.11},
abstract = {Water harvesting (WH) is a critical strategy for addressing water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions, where communities rely on limited rainfall to sustain domestic supply, livestock, and agricultural production. This study evaluates the design, construction, and operational performance of small water-harvesting dams constructed in Sudan between 2010 and 2019. A basin-based analytical framework was applied to describe hydrological conditions and manage uncertainties inherent in data-scarce environments. The methodology integrates regional and empirical flood-estimation techniques with assessment of key design parameters, evaluation of construction practices, and qualitative risk analysis. Results indicate that, despite their relatively small size, these dams face engineering challenges comparable to larger dams, particularly in terms of hydrological uncertainty, seepage control, reservoir tightness, and limited site-investigation data. The absence of continuous hydrometric records complicates flood-frequency analysis and spillway design, increasing uncertainty and operational risk. The study underscores the importance of incorporating risk-informed design approaches and strengthening hydrological and geotechnical investigations to enhance safety, functionality, and long-term performance of small dams in Sudan. Additionally, it highlights the need for systematic monitoring and adaptive management strategies to mitigate extreme events, optimize water utilization, and support sustainable rural development in dryland regions increasingly affected by climate variability and growing water demand.},
year = {2026}
}
TY - JOUR
T1 - Design Challenges and Water Harvesting Performance of Small Dams in Sudan (2010–2019)
AU - Hummam Mohammed Yousif
AU - Mona Adam Gumma Rabih
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PY - 2026
N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajcbm.20261001.11
DO - 10.11648/j.ajcbm.20261001.11
T2 - American Journal of Construction and Building Materials
JF - American Journal of Construction and Building Materials
JO - American Journal of Construction and Building Materials
SP - 1
EP - 4
PB - Science Publishing Group
SN - 2640-0057
UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajcbm.20261001.11
AB - Water harvesting (WH) is a critical strategy for addressing water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions, where communities rely on limited rainfall to sustain domestic supply, livestock, and agricultural production. This study evaluates the design, construction, and operational performance of small water-harvesting dams constructed in Sudan between 2010 and 2019. A basin-based analytical framework was applied to describe hydrological conditions and manage uncertainties inherent in data-scarce environments. The methodology integrates regional and empirical flood-estimation techniques with assessment of key design parameters, evaluation of construction practices, and qualitative risk analysis. Results indicate that, despite their relatively small size, these dams face engineering challenges comparable to larger dams, particularly in terms of hydrological uncertainty, seepage control, reservoir tightness, and limited site-investigation data. The absence of continuous hydrometric records complicates flood-frequency analysis and spillway design, increasing uncertainty and operational risk. The study underscores the importance of incorporating risk-informed design approaches and strengthening hydrological and geotechnical investigations to enhance safety, functionality, and long-term performance of small dams in Sudan. Additionally, it highlights the need for systematic monitoring and adaptive management strategies to mitigate extreme events, optimize water utilization, and support sustainable rural development in dryland regions increasingly affected by climate variability and growing water demand.
VL - 10
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Yousif, H. M., Rabih, M. A. G. (2026). Design Challenges and Water Harvesting Performance of Small Dams in Sudan (2010–2019). American Journal of Construction and Building Materials, 10(1), 1-4. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajcbm.20261001.11
Yousif, H. M.; Rabih, M. A. G. Design Challenges and Water Harvesting Performance of Small Dams in Sudan (2010–2019). Am. J. Constr. Build. Mater.2026, 10(1), 1-4. doi: 10.11648/j.ajcbm.20261001.11
Yousif HM, Rabih MAG. Design Challenges and Water Harvesting Performance of Small Dams in Sudan (2010–2019). Am J Constr Build Mater. 2026;10(1):1-4. doi: 10.11648/j.ajcbm.20261001.11
@article{10.11648/j.ajcbm.20261001.11,
author = {Hummam Mohammed Yousif and Mona Adam Gumma Rabih},
title = {Design Challenges and Water Harvesting Performance of Small Dams in Sudan (2010–2019)},
journal = {American Journal of Construction and Building Materials},
volume = {10},
number = {1},
pages = {1-4},
doi = {10.11648/j.ajcbm.20261001.11},
url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajcbm.20261001.11},
eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajcbm.20261001.11},
abstract = {Water harvesting (WH) is a critical strategy for addressing water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions, where communities rely on limited rainfall to sustain domestic supply, livestock, and agricultural production. This study evaluates the design, construction, and operational performance of small water-harvesting dams constructed in Sudan between 2010 and 2019. A basin-based analytical framework was applied to describe hydrological conditions and manage uncertainties inherent in data-scarce environments. The methodology integrates regional and empirical flood-estimation techniques with assessment of key design parameters, evaluation of construction practices, and qualitative risk analysis. Results indicate that, despite their relatively small size, these dams face engineering challenges comparable to larger dams, particularly in terms of hydrological uncertainty, seepage control, reservoir tightness, and limited site-investigation data. The absence of continuous hydrometric records complicates flood-frequency analysis and spillway design, increasing uncertainty and operational risk. The study underscores the importance of incorporating risk-informed design approaches and strengthening hydrological and geotechnical investigations to enhance safety, functionality, and long-term performance of small dams in Sudan. Additionally, it highlights the need for systematic monitoring and adaptive management strategies to mitigate extreme events, optimize water utilization, and support sustainable rural development in dryland regions increasingly affected by climate variability and growing water demand.},
year = {2026}
}
TY - JOUR
T1 - Design Challenges and Water Harvesting Performance of Small Dams in Sudan (2010–2019)
AU - Hummam Mohammed Yousif
AU - Mona Adam Gumma Rabih
Y1 - 2026/05/16
PY - 2026
N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajcbm.20261001.11
DO - 10.11648/j.ajcbm.20261001.11
T2 - American Journal of Construction and Building Materials
JF - American Journal of Construction and Building Materials
JO - American Journal of Construction and Building Materials
SP - 1
EP - 4
PB - Science Publishing Group
SN - 2640-0057
UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajcbm.20261001.11
AB - Water harvesting (WH) is a critical strategy for addressing water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions, where communities rely on limited rainfall to sustain domestic supply, livestock, and agricultural production. This study evaluates the design, construction, and operational performance of small water-harvesting dams constructed in Sudan between 2010 and 2019. A basin-based analytical framework was applied to describe hydrological conditions and manage uncertainties inherent in data-scarce environments. The methodology integrates regional and empirical flood-estimation techniques with assessment of key design parameters, evaluation of construction practices, and qualitative risk analysis. Results indicate that, despite their relatively small size, these dams face engineering challenges comparable to larger dams, particularly in terms of hydrological uncertainty, seepage control, reservoir tightness, and limited site-investigation data. The absence of continuous hydrometric records complicates flood-frequency analysis and spillway design, increasing uncertainty and operational risk. The study underscores the importance of incorporating risk-informed design approaches and strengthening hydrological and geotechnical investigations to enhance safety, functionality, and long-term performance of small dams in Sudan. Additionally, it highlights the need for systematic monitoring and adaptive management strategies to mitigate extreme events, optimize water utilization, and support sustainable rural development in dryland regions increasingly affected by climate variability and growing water demand.
VL - 10
IS - 1
ER -
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