1. Introduction
The notion of corrective feedback (CF) is generally considered a key element in SLA because it allows learners to recognize, notice and correct their mistakes. CF, along with enhancing grammatical accuracy of learners’ output, is also an important factor that contributes to the overall communicative competence of ELT learners in tertiary education institutions
| [5] | Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. |
| [17] | Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2013). How languages are learned (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. |
[5, 17]
. From a pedagogical standpoint, corrective feedback helps connect teaching and learning processes by helping apprentices improve their language performance
. The origins of corrective feedback can be found in theoretical principles of some of the most renowned theories in the realm of SLA. In particular, according to the Interaction Hypothesis, learners gain language skills through meaningful interactions during which the processes of negotiating meanings and forms occur
| [9] | Gass, S. M. (1997). Input, interaction, and the second language learner. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. |
| [18] | Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 413-468). Academic Press.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012589042-7/50015-3 |
[9, 18]
. At the same time, the Output Hypothesis implies that CF encourages learners to speak a target language in order to enhance their language proficiency and notice their mistakes
| [27] | Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 235-253). Newbury House. |
[27]
. Another aspect of the CF discussed in literature concerns the role of the Noticing Hypothesis, which implies that noticing gaps in language is the basis of SLA
.
In classrooms, corrective feedback includes different forms of feedback, such as recasts, explicit correction, clarification requests, elicitation, and metalinguistic feedback
| [19] | Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form in communicative classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(1), 37-66.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263197001034 |
[19]
. Studies show that various types of corrective feedback have different effects based on the level of learners’ proficiencies and the context of instruction
| [3] | Ammar, A., & Spada, N. (2006). One size fits all? Recasts, prompts, and L2 learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28(4), 543-574.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263106060268 |
| [25] | Sheen, Y. (2004). Corrective feedback and learner uptake in communicative classrooms across instructional settings. Language Teaching Research, 8(3), 263-300.
https://doi.org/10.1191/1362168804lr146oa |
[3, 25]
. For example, explicit correction has been proved to be an effective means to improve grammatical correctness, whereas implicit forms of feedback, such as recasts, might not have noticeable effects on learners
| [8] | Ellis, R., Loewen, S., & Erlam, R. (2006). Implicit and explicit corrective feedback and the acquisition of L2 grammar. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28(2), 339-368.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263106060141 |
[8]
. In addition, meta-analyses reveal that feedback can significantly improve the result of second language instruction
. The other aspect of feedback in second language acquisition is associated with the concept of positive backwash. Backwash is the desirable effect of teaching practices and assessments on learners. Positive feedback stimulates learning and helps apprentices develop better performance skills
. From this perspective, feedback takes on not just the role of correction, but also motivation and development in ELT settings
| [4] | Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education. |
| [10] | Harmer, J. (2015). How to teach English (2nd ed.). Pearson. |
[4, 10]
. Specifically, in the case of Bangladesh, where English is studied as a foreign language, classroom communication is essential since the learner will have fewer opportunities to use the target language in other settings. Nevertheless, conventional teaching methodologies often promote examination-based learning, which could negatively impact corrective feedback and communication
| [7] | Ellis, R., Basturkmen, H., & Loewen, S. (2001). Learner uptake in communicative ESL lessons. Language Learning, 51(2), 281-318. https://doi.org/10.1111/0023-8333.00156 |
| [13] | Islam, M. S., Hasan, M. K., Sultana, S., Karim, A., & Rahman, M. M. (2021). English language assessment in Bangladesh today: Principles, practices, and problems. Language Testing in Asia, 11, Article 1.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-020-00116-z |
[7, 13]
. Current research shows that Bangladeshi teachers view corrective feedback positively but have difficulty implementing it due to various factors related to the teaching setting
.
Moreover, studies about tertiary learners from Bangladesh indicate that the practice of corrective feedback plays an important part in improving their writing and linguistic skills, thus creating positive learning experiences for them
| [26] | Sultana, N., & Yoko, N. T. (2021). Impact of teachers’ feedback in improving apprentices’ writing skills: A study of tertiary level apprentices in Dhaka. British Journal of Arts and Humanities, 3(5), 128-139.
https://doi.org/10.34104/bjah.02101280139 |
[26]
. On the other hand, there is still limited research concerning the process by which corrective feedback produces positive backwash within the teacher-student (apprentice) relationship within ELT classrooms. Some previous studies have found that despite efforts to incorporate corrective feedback, there are problems regarding the inconsistent methods of the teachers, requiring an approach that involves more learner interaction and involvement
. Hence, this study will try to examine how the use of corrective feedback along with its effect on the learners’ performance will come about through the teacher-apprentice interaction at the tertiary education level in Bangladesh.
Research Questions
1) How corrective feedback takes place in tertiary level EFL classes in Bangladesh?
2) What is the importance of teacher-student interaction in developing positive backwash through corrective feedback?
3) What are the issues affecting the use of corrective feedback at tertiary level in Bangladesh?
2. Literature Review
Corrective feedback (CF) has attracted significant research attention in SLA studies due to its fundamental role in language development. It involves responses to learner errors intended to enhance accuracy and facilitate learning. Early theoretical contributions emphasize three essential elements of language acquisition: exposure to language, interaction, and cognitive processing. The Input Hypothesis states that learners acquire linguistic competence through exposure to language input that is slightly beyond their current level of proficiency
| [15] | Krashen, S. D. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. Longman. |
[15]
. However, input alone is insufficient without interaction and corrective feedback, as these enable learners to identify and correct their errors
| [9] | Gass, S. M. (1997). Input, interaction, and the second language learner. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. |
[9]
. According to the Interaction Hypothesis, interaction is a crucial component of language learning because it promotes language acquisition through the negotiation of meaning and form
| [18] | Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 413-468). Academic Press.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012589042-7/50015-3 |
[18]
. Through interaction, learners receive corrective feedback that draws their attention to specific linguistic forms. Similarly, the Output Hypothesis proposes that language production enables learners to recognize gaps in their linguistic knowledge and further develop their proficiency
| [27] | Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 235-253). Newbury House. |
[27]
. In this way, corrective feedback serves as a bridge between language input and output by encouraging learners to reflect on their language performance.
One important theoretical perspective associated with corrective feedback is the Noticing Hypothesis, which argues that learners must consciously notice linguistic forms for language acquisition to occur
. By helping learners recognize their errors, corrective feedback, particularly explicit feedback, facilitates the internalization of accurate language forms. Research has shown that explicit feedback is generally more effective than implicit feedback in improving grammatical performance, although its effectiveness depends on instructional context and learner characteristics
| [8] | Ellis, R., Loewen, S., & Erlam, R. (2006). Implicit and explicit corrective feedback and the acquisition of L2 grammar. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28(2), 339-368.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263106060141 |
[8]
. To classify corrective feedback strategies, Lyster and Ranta developed a widely accepted framework consisting of recasts, explicit correction, clarification requests, metalinguistic feedback, elicitation, and repetition
| [19] | Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form in communicative classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(1), 37-66.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263197001034 |
[19]
. A key feature of this framework is learner uptake, defined as learners’ immediate responses to teacher feedback. Empirical studies have demonstrated that different feedback strategies produce different levels of learner uptake and repair
| [23] | Panova, I., & Lyster, R. (2002). Patterns of corrective feedback and uptake in an adult ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 36(4), 573-595. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588241 |
[23]
. In general, prompts such as elicitation and clarification requests promote greater learner engagement than recasts
.
Additional classroom-based studies support the effectiveness of corrective feedback in language learning. Research indicates that the impact of corrective feedback varies according to classroom context and instructional approach
. Likewise, oral corrective feedback contributes significantly to the development of communicative competence, particularly when it is interactive and context-sensitive
. Furthermore, research syntheses have demonstrated that corrective feedback has a statistically significant positive effect on second language learning across diverse instructional settings
. Written corrective feedback has also received considerable attention in second language research. Effective feedback in academic writing should be constructive, explicit, and supportive in order to motivate learners and improve writing performance
. Similarly, feedback should not merely identify errors but also guide learners toward improved writing performance
. Collectively, these studies support the contribution of corrective feedback to positive backwash in language learning.
Positive backwash is closely associated with effective teaching practices because constructive alignment and interactive feedback encourage learner responsibility and improve academic performance
. Language teaching specialists recommend that feedback should be informative, timely, and personalized to maximize learning outcomes
| [4] | Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education. |
| [10] | Harmer, J. (2015). How to teach English (2nd ed.). Pearson. |
[4, 10]
. Moreover, maintaining an appropriate balance between accuracy and fluency is essential for developing communicative competence. From a pedagogical perspective, form-focused instruction and corrective feedback remain integral components of effective language teaching. Integrating form-focused instruction with communicative language teaching has been shown to produce positive learning outcomes
| [28] | Williams, J. (2005). Form-focused instruction. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 671-691). Lawrence Erlbaum.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410612700 |
[28]
. Furthermore, interactional feedback is most effective when it occurs during meaningful communication and actively engages learners
. In Bangladesh, however, the implementation of corrective feedback is constrained by various institutional and classroom factors. English language assessment at the tertiary level continues to emphasize examination performance rather than broader educational objectives
| [13] | Islam, M. S., Hasan, M. K., Sultana, S., Karim, A., & Rahman, M. M. (2021). English language assessment in Bangladesh today: Principles, practices, and problems. Language Testing in Asia, 11, Article 1.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-020-00116-z |
[13]
. Nevertheless, recent studies indicate growing teacher awareness of the importance of corrective feedback in language learning.
Research conducted in Bangladesh shows that teachers generally hold positive attitudes toward corrective feedback despite facing challenges such as large class sizes and limited instructional time
. Comparative research further reveals that experienced instructors tend to employ more indirect feedback strategies, whereas novice teachers rely more heavily on direct error correction, resulting in lower levels of learner engagement
| [2] | Alam, M. Z. (2025). Shaping written corrective feedback perspectives and practices: Comparing novice and experienced instructors of English for academic purposes in Bangladesh. Language Testing in Asia, 15, Article 58.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-025-00390-9 |
[2]
. In addition, teacher feedback has been found to significantly improve apprentices’ writing skills and increase their language awareness
| [26] | Sultana, N., & Yoko, N. T. (2021). Impact of teachers’ feedback in improving apprentices’ writing skills: A study of tertiary level apprentices in Dhaka. British Journal of Arts and Humanities, 3(5), 128-139.
https://doi.org/10.34104/bjah.02101280139 |
[26]
. Earlier research also highlights the importance of corrective feedback in Bangladeshi ELT classrooms while emphasizing the need for more consistent and interactive implementation
. Overall, the existing literature strongly supports the use of corrective feedback in language learning, particularly when feedback is interactive, learner-centered, and pedagogically appropriate. While international research provides substantial theoretical and empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of corrective feedback, studies conducted in Bangladesh emphasize the need to strengthen its classroom implementation and teacher training. Therefore, the present study aims to examine how corrective feedback generates positive backwash through teacher–apprentice interaction at the tertiary level in Bangladesh.
3. Materials & Method
3.1. Research Design
The current study utilizes a mixed-method research strategy, which combines both quantitative and qualitative methods to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the processes and outcomes of corrective feedback in ELT classrooms. A mixed-methods approach is appropriate because it enables the triangulation of data, thereby enhancing the credibility and reliability of the findings
| [4] | Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education. |
| [17] | Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2013). How languages are learned (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. |
[4, 17]
. Quantitative data will be used to measure apprentices’ perceptions of corrective feedback, while qualitative data will provide deeper insights into the feedback practices and instructional processes employed by teachers.
3.2. Research Context
The research was carried out in a tertiary educational institution in Bangladesh, where English is taught as a foreign language. In this context, classroom interaction serves as the primary means through which learners engage in English language learning, making corrective feedback an essential pedagogical practice
| [13] | Islam, M. S., Hasan, M. K., Sultana, S., Karim, A., & Rahman, M. M. (2021). English language assessment in Bangladesh today: Principles, practices, and problems. Language Testing in Asia, 11, Article 1.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-020-00116-z |
[13]
. Nevertheless, several contextual factors, including large class sizes and examination-oriented teaching practices, may influence instructional procedures and the effective implementation of corrective feedback
.
3.3. Participants, Sampling & Instruments
The participants in this study consisted of 100 undergraduate apprentices from diverse academic backgrounds, including both English and non-English disciplines, and 10 English language teachers from two tertiary educational institutions in Bangladesh. Participants were selected based on differences in apprentices’ language proficiency and teachers’ professional experience. Purposive sampling was employed because it enabled the researcher to select participants with firsthand knowledge and experience of corrective feedback in ELT classrooms
| [4] | Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education. |
[4]
. Data were collected using three research instruments. First, apprentices completed a standardized questionnaire designed to examine their perceptions of corrective feedback, including its types, preferences, and effects on learning. The questionnaire employed a five-point Likert scale and was developed based on established studies in the field
| [5] | Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. |
| [11] | Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81-112.
https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487 |
[5, 11]
. Second, semi-structured interviews were conducted with teachers to explore their perspectives on error correction, the feedback strategies they employed, and the challenges they encountered during classroom implementation. This instrument provided in-depth insights into classroom feedback practices
. Finally, a structured classroom observation checklist was used to examine feedback types, teacher–apprentice interactions, and learner uptake based on the corrective feedback framework developed by Lyster and Ranta
| [19] | Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form in communicative classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(1), 37-66.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263197001034 |
[19]
.
3.4. Data Collection
It involved the administration of questionnaires, teacher interviews, and classroom observations over a four-week period following approval from the participating institutions. Ethical principles were maintained throughout the study by ensuring informed consent, participant anonymity, and confidentiality. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistical techniques, including frequencies, percentages, and mean scores, with the findings presented in tables and graphs to illustrate overall trends
. Qualitative data obtained from interviews and classroom observations were analyzed thematically to identify patterns related to feedback effectiveness, teacher–apprentice interaction, and challenges associated with the implementation of corrective feedback
. The reliability and validity of the study were enhanced through pilot testing, data triangulation, and the application of established theoretical frameworks
| [6] | Ellis, R. (2009). Corrective feedback and teacher development. L2 Journal, 1(1), 3-18.
https://doi.org/10.5070/L2.v1i1.9054 |
| [7] | Ellis, R., Basturkmen, H., & Loewen, S. (2001). Learner uptake in communicative ESL lessons. Language Learning, 51(2), 281-318. https://doi.org/10.1111/0023-8333.00156 |
| [20] | Lyster, R., & Saito, K. (2010). Oral corrective feedback in second language classrooms. Language Teaching, 43(3), 265-302. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444809990365 |
[6, 7, 20]
. Nevertheless, the study has several limitations, including its relatively small sample size, limited duration, and focus on tertiary-level institutions in Bangladesh.
4. Results and Discussion
This chapter provides the results and discussion based on the study conducted. Both quantitative analyses is included in this chapter, which comprises 100 undergraduates of different subjects including English and others, along with qualitative analysis obtained from the interviews of 10 English teachers. This chapter deals with the analysis of data related to the research question based on feedback practices in producing positive backwash in Bangladeshi tertiary ELT classrooms. It can be observed that corrective feedback is an integral part of classroom discourse in this case, even if there is variation regarding feedback types and efficiency levels. The quantitative data obtained shows that roughly 70% of the respondents frequently receive corrective feedback, while 30% occasionally have this experience. Explicit correction and recasts proved to be the most popular feedback types among apprentices, with teachers also confirming this conclusion during the interview session. The advantage of the aforementioned techniques consists in the fact that they are more time-effective and feasible for use in classes with many apprentices. Nevertheless, very few people stated that they have had experiences of interacting with their teacher when being corrected. In other words, it can be said that corrective feedback is teacher-focused rather than learner-focused in this particular case. It can be concluded that this study is consistent with previous findings
| [23] | Panova, I., & Lyster, R. (2002). Patterns of corrective feedback and uptake in an adult ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 36(4), 573-595. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588241 |
[23]
. According to Lyster and Ranta
| [19] | Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form in communicative classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(1), 37-66.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263197001034 |
[19]
and Sheen
, recasts are the type of feedback with lower interaction levels which prevent learner uptake.
4.1. Interaction Between TS in the Process of Creating Positive Backwash (Rq2)
The outcomes clearly show the important contribution of interaction between teachers and apprentices in the process of creating positive backwash using corrective feedback. A substantial number of the surveyed apprentices (about 74% of the respondents) indicated that the feedback received had helped them in improving language accuracy, confidence, and performance in the classroom. The apprentices especially appreciated interactive and informative feedback since it made them realize their mistakes and thus avoid making them again. These results are in accordance with the Noticing Hypothesis, emphasizing the necessity for the learners to notice errors in order to learn the language properly
. In addition, the findings are similar to Swain’s Output Hypothesis according to which feedback encourages the active use of language by the apprentices
| [27] | Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 235-253). Newbury House. |
[27]
. From the standpoint of the integrationists, feedback in the classes that encouraged discussion and interaction resulted in increased engagement of the learners. This observation corresponds with the Interaction Hypothesis emphasizing the crucial role of negotiation of meaning in second language acquisition
| [9] | Gass, S. M. (1997). Input, interaction, and the second language learner. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. |
| [18] | Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 413-468). Academic Press.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012589042-7/50015-3 |
[9, 18]
.
Also, the notion of positive backwash is also present in the way feedback affected the learners’ behavior in terms of studying. It is stated that there was an increase in motivation, attentiveness to accuracy, and higher level of results in writing and speaking. This idea is corroborated by the works of Hyland and Hyland
, who maintain that feedback serves as a motivational factor for learners, as well as Zhao
, who points out the importance of feedback when working on writing. Moreover, teachers noted that positive feedback creates a comfortable environment for learning. This idea is consistent with the theory developed by Hattie and Timperley
, who state that feedback should be able to provide answers to the following questions:
Where am I going? How am I going? What should I do next? If these questions are considered, there will be an opportunity for deep learning and positive effects. Still, not all feedback brings about positive backwash. Some apprentices felt insecure due to excessive direct feedback, which made them refrain from participating.
Further investigation through teachers’ interviews also indicated that the practice of providing feedback is highly influenced by constraints in the classroom such as large classes, lack of instructional time, and differences in teacher training. It was evident that although teachers favored interactive feedback, the constraint forced many of them to provide direct feedback. The teachers with less teaching experience had a tendency to give direct correction, whereas those who were more experienced tended to use various techniques such as prompts and guided self-correction. This observation is also supported by research carried out recently
| [2] | Alam, M. Z. (2025). Shaping written corrective feedback perspectives and practices: Comparing novice and experienced instructors of English for academic purposes in Bangladesh. Language Testing in Asia, 15, Article 58.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-025-00390-9 |
[2]
in Bangladesh. The results regarding the effect of positive backwash showed that apprentices generally perceived the provision of corrective feedback in a positive way. About 75% of the participants claimed that feedback improved their accuracy, comprehension, and confidence levels. A great number of apprentices also had preferences for receiving feedback that enabled them to do reflection and self-correction.
This finding confirms the Noticing Hypothesis of Schmidt
, where noticing errors by learners’ plays an essential role in facilitating learning. Likewise, the Output Hypothesis of Swain
| [27] | Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 235-253). Newbury House. |
[27]
can be observed from these findings since feedback makes apprentices utilize language actively. Interaction between teacher and student was identified as one of the most important factors influencing positive backwash. The participants who underwent interactive feedback exhibited increased engagement, participation, and confidence. It corroborates the Interaction Hypothesis
| [9] | Gass, S. M. (1997). Input, interaction, and the second language learner. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. |
| [18] | Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 413-468). Academic Press.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012589042-7/50015-3 |
[9, 18]
stating that meaning negotiation is vital for learning languages. Teachers, on their part, noted that encouraging and constructive feedback creates a favorable atmosphere of the class that promotes motivation. These findings resonate with the theory provided by Hattie and Timperley
. Effective feedback concerns learning aims, development and improvement. Some forms of feedback were found to produce negative effects, however. Some participants admitted being anxious due to too much direct criticism. Furthermore, there are quite a number of issues identified that have a direct impact on how successful implementation of feedback will be. Firstly, large classes turned out to be a serious obstacle to effective feedback since most of the teachers cited that they cannot provide personal and interactive feedback due to class size. Secondly, limited time prevents teachers from applying different kinds of feedback because they simply do not have enough time and end up using immediate and clear corrections. Finally, the lack of training in how to give feedback has an impact on what kind of feedback is used. However, there is still a room for improvements that can be made in the light of these difficulties. First of all, both apprentices and teachers found the importance of using interactive forms of feedback, such as elicitation and peer correction, very useful in terms of engaging learners and promoting their success. Second, the use of form-focused feedback in communicative activities appeared to be useful as well since it allows finding a balance between fluency and accuracy
. Finally, the necessity of receiving professional development was also pointed out by teachers as an important step towards making feedback more efficient.
4.2. Issues and Opportunities Concerning the Implementation of Corrective Feedback
The paper presents several issues that influence the effectiveness of corrective feedback in Bangladeshi tertiary contexts. Issues: The major issues include the following: Large Class Size: The inability to provide personalized feedback due to the presence of too many apprentices is one of the key barriers to effective feedback practice. It is similar to other studies conducted in Bangladesh
| [13] | Islam, M. S., Hasan, M. K., Sultana, S., Karim, A., & Rahman, M. M. (2021). English language assessment in Bangladesh today: Principles, practices, and problems. Language Testing in Asia, 11, Article 1.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-020-00116-z |
[13]
. Limited Time: There is no sufficient time to use different feedback practices because of a limited number of lessons. That is why teachers prefer to correct errors immediately without using interactive approaches. Insufficient Experience: Several teachers claimed that they did not have sufficient experience in conducting corrective feedback. In particular, they tend to rely on explicit correction
. Anxiety: Apprentices felt anxious about the possibility of making errors when provided with corrective feedback. Opportunities: However, there are also several opportunities that can be used to optimize the process:
1) The use of diverse methods for giving feedback (e.g., prompts, elicitation) may be beneficial to increase learners’ participation
.
2) Combining form-focused instructions into communicative tasks may increase accuracy but not decrease fluency
| [28] | Williams, J. (2005). Form-focused instruction. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 671-691). Lawrence Erlbaum.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410612700 |
[28]
.
3) Interactional feedback approaches may help learners learn better
.
4) Teacher training can contribute to giving better feedback practices
. Moreover, according to global research findings, systematic and interactive correction of errors proves highly efficient
.
Synthesis of Findings: In general, the research findings reveal the strong influence of corrective feedback in promoting language learning among tertiary apprentices in Bangladesh. Nevertheless, its effect varies based on:
1) The nature of the feedback utilized.
2) The extent of interaction between teachers and apprentices.
3) The prevailing classroom setting.
Despite existing feedback practices, which are inclined towards conventional techniques, there are promising possibilities to increase positive feedback through interactive processes. Such findings further highlight the necessity of integrating feedback techniques with existing SLA theory and teaching principles
| [5] | Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. |
| [17] | Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2013). How languages are learned (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. |
[5, 17]
.
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
The present study sought to explore the importance of corrective feedback (CF) and the significance of its contributions to positive backwash through teacher-student (apprentice) interactions in tertiary-level English language teaching (ELT) classrooms in Bangladesh. The findings highlight the fact that corrective feedback plays an important pedagogical role that contributes substantially to improving learners’ linguistic accuracy, confidence, and engagement when used appropriately. It appears that although corrective feedback is commonly employed, it tends to be highly teacher-oriented, where there is an extensive use of recasts and direct correction. Though recasts and direct correction are effective strategies, they fail to provide learners with enough chances to interact and engage in more cognitive processes.
The significance of this research lies in its ability to show how teacher-student interaction serves as a mediator for successful corrective feedback those results in backwash effects. When feedback is provided through a process of interaction, support, and timeliness, it allows apprentices to be aware of their mistakes, improve the output and engage with the teaching-learning process. All this corresponds to the Interaction Hypothesis where it is emphasized that negotiations help acquire language skills
| [18] | Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 413-468). Academic Press.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012589042-7/50015-3 |
[18]
. From the point of view of Bangladesh’s educational situation, some achievements as well as gaps can be identified. In general, teachers are aware of the need for feedback but are limited by several factors including large classes, lack of time, and lack of expertise
| [13] | Islam, M. S., Hasan, M. K., Sultana, S., Karim, A., & Rahman, M. M. (2021). English language assessment in Bangladesh today: Principles, practices, and problems. Language Testing in Asia, 11, Article 1.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-020-00116-z |
| [14] | Kamal, M. A., Seraj, P. M. I., & Begum, F. (2024). Teachers’ perceptions of corrective feedback in task-based language teaching and CLIL contexts in Bangladesh. MEXTESOL Journal, 48(1).
https://www.mextesol.net/journal/index.php?page=journal&id_article=2155 |
[13, 14]
. In this way, the complete utilization of corrective feedback in the process of creating positive backwash cannot always be achieved. In conclusion, the research shows that corrective feedback, together with appropriate teacher-student interactions, can help create more learner-oriented classrooms within the framework of English language teaching. Based on the results obtained from this research, the following suggestions for the improvement of corrective feedback and positive backwash are offered.
Some critical recommendations that emerge from this study concerning ways to enhance the effectiveness of corrective feedback in higher education institutions’ English language classrooms are worth mentioning. To begin with, instructors need to foster more interactive feedback practices through techniques like elicitation, clarification questions, and metalinguistic feedback. This will help learners to actively participate in correcting themselves, thus increasing their level of engagement and helping to facilitate more cognitive processing of language during feedback provision
| [3] | Ammar, A., & Spada, N. (2006). One size fits all? Recasts, prompts, and L2 learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28(4), 543-574.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263106060268 |
| [22] | Nassaji, H. (2016). Anniversary article: Interactional feedback in second language teaching and learning. Language Teaching Research, 20(4), 535-562.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168816644849 |
[3, 22]
. Furthermore, there is an urgent need to invest in teacher training practices within educational institutions. Training courses and workshops that cover various aspects of corrective feedback, classroom interactions, and learner-centered methodologies should be conducted regularly
.
In addition, large class sizes are usually encountered in tertiary settings in Bangladesh, which often pose limitations on personalized interactions and feedbacks. Even though minimizing class size might not be possible always, there are other ways for teachers to maximize student participation and make feedbacks easier, such as using peer feedback and error correction through group work. Feedback must be immediate, constructive, and understandable in order to achieve maximum results in learning processes. Immediate feedback on student errors, whether grammatical or meaning-based, combined with a supportive learning environment, is crucial for motivating learners
| [11] | Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81-112.
https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487 |
| [12] | Hyland, K., & Hyland, F. (2006). Feedback on second language apprentices’ writing. Language Teaching, 39(2), 83-101.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444806003399 |
[11, 12]
.
Then again, there should be integration of feedback processes with assessment systems in such a way that creates positive backwash effects. The integration of feedback with the learning objectives and the assessment system can help apprentices to comprehend the meaning of feedback and make effective use of it for improving their performance
. The aspect of encouraging the learners’ autonomy should be considered, and the apprentices should be assisted in self-assessing and self-correcting their mistakes and interacting with others for developing autonomous learning habits and linguistic abilities
| [17] | Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2013). How languages are learned (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. |
[17]
. Technology can also be incorporated in feedback delivery, which could be an advantageous approach. Feedback could be delivered through digital media, where the teachers can provide more detailed written feedbacks, keep track of apprentices’ performances and facilitate interaction beyond classroom limits. All in all, the process of correcting feedback should be perceived as a means for transforming learning rather than for error correction. The effective integration of feedback processes with interactive teaching methods can lead to a positive backwash effect in teaching/learning situations of tertiary level ELT contexts of Bangladesh.
Appendix
Appendix I: Quantitative Questionnaire
Section A: Background Information
1) Gender: ☐ Male ☐ Female ☐ Other
2) Academic Level: ☐ 1st Year ☐ 2nd Year ☐ 3rd Year ☐ 4th Year
3) Self-rated English Proficiency: ☐ Beginner ☐ Intermediate ☐ Advanced
Section B: Apprentices’ Perceptions of Corrective Feedback
Instruction: Please indicate your response. (1 = Agree, 2=Disagree, 3=Never, 4= Strongly Agree 5=Strongly Disagree)
4) My teacher uses different types of feedback (e.g., direct correction, hints, and explanations). ☐ 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5
5) My teacher encourages me to correct my own mistakes. ☐ 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5
6) I prefer feedback that allows me to think and self-correct. ☐ 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5
7) I prefer immediate correction of my mistakes. ☐ 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5
Section C: Impact of Feedback on Learning (Positive Backwash)
8) Corrective feedback helps me improve my English accuracy and understanding. ☐ 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5
9) Feedback increases my confidence and classroom participation. ☐ 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5
10) Interactive feedback (discussion, questioning) improves my learning more than direct correction. ☐ 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5
Appendix II: Qualitative Interview Questions for Teacher
1) How long have you taught English in the tertiary sector, what classes do you conduct, and have you taken any training on corrective feedback or methodologies used in the teaching of English as a foreign language?
2) What do you know about corrective feedback and how much do you feel it will help your learners in their studies?
3) What type of feedback do you contribute and in what circumstances (immediate or delayed)? Why?
4) What kind of response do you generally get from your learners and what strategies do you adopt in order to promote interaction (e.g., self-correction or peer correction)?
5) What difficulties do you encounter while delivering corrective feedback, and what changes would you like to see?
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